classical mythology: Uranus & Gaia

English literature has been directly influenced by classical mythology which is epics and tales of the ancient Greece and Rome. Greek written myths dates back about 8th century B.C. , while Roman ones were not written until the 1st B.C. Ovid and Virgil were two of the Roman greatest authors on this subject.

Greek people believed that it was not gods who created the world, but universe actually created gods and goddesses. They believed that before this world came into existence, there was in its place a confused mass of shapeless elements called Chaos. These elements, then, resolved themselves into two different substances: the lighter which was higher formed the sky, and the solid substance beneath that was the earth, or in other words, two great Greek deities: Uranus and Gaia.

Uranus, or Father Heaven, represented the light and air of heaven, possessing the distinguishing qualities of light, heat, purity, and omnipresence.

Gaia was worshiped as a Mother. There was scarcely a city in Greece which did not contain a temple erected in her honour; indeed Gaia was held in such veneration that her name was always invoked whenever the gods took a solemn oath, made an emphatic declaration, or implored assistance.

 

history4: 1016-1066

After defeating Edmund Ironside, Canute came to the throne of England.Actually, he was the king of Denmark, England, Norway, and parts of Sweden, together often referred to as the Anglo-Scandinavian or North Sea Empire. In 1018, Canute arranged for a massive Danegeld to be paid to the Viking fleet,and the Viking army returned home leaving just a small number of ships under the control of Canute.  He was a great king who united Anglo-Saxons and Danes. His reigned from 1016 to 1035.

When Canute died in 1035, his son Harold Harefoot seized the throne. Harold died in 1040 at Oxford leaving the English throne open for his brother, Hathacanute to claim. As Hathacanute had no wife, thus no heir, he invited Edward,the Confessor,who the Chronicle notes was Harthacnut's brother on his mother's side, to return from Normandy to England. Edward's reign lasted 14 years (1042- 1066). He was a Saxon. His father was Aethelred (or Ethelred), the Unready and his mother was Emma, Aethelred's second wife. He had been brought up in Normandy and was more French than English. The two main points of Edward's reign are perhaps the rival importances of the House of Godwine and of the Normans. The Godwines (Godwine, earl since 1018, and his daughter Edith, who married the king, and sons Swein, Harold, Tostig, Gyrth, Leofwine, and Wulfnoth) at times controlled much of the country.In fact, Edward was a weak king who was instrumental in bringing England under the rule of the Normans. He died in 1066. As he had no son, the English national essembly, the Witan, chose Harold, son of Godwine, the Saxon Earl of Wessex, as the king of England. But as Harold was not of royal blood, William, the Duke of Normandy, and king of Norway claimed for the throne of England. Norwegian forces landed in Northumbria. As Harold was fighting with them in north, Norman army landed in south. Harold defeated Norwegians and hurried south, but his armies were exhausted of long march. Harold, though deserted but the northern earls, fought bravely in famous battle of Hastings on October 14, 1066. Harold was mortally wounded, and William seized the throne of England.

Saxon kings

Some of Saxon kings whose reign was of historical and social importance are:

Offa (reign:757-796) , King of Mercia, was the first ruler to be called "king of the English". He seized the power after a civil war, and established supremacy over many lesser kings and consolidated his position by marrying his daughters to the kings of Wessex and Northumbria.The English penny was introduced during Offa's reign.

Alfred, the Great, (reign:871-899) is the next and probably the most important Anglo-Saxon king. He was the 5th son of Aethelwulf, king of the Wessex.He reigned from 871 to 899.When he was younger, Danes started attacking England.In 867,Danes established their own kingdom in southern Northumbria and conquered East Anglia and Mercia.In 870, they attacked Wessex, but Alfred defeated them in 878 at the Battle of Edington. He was not only a great king, but a great literary figure.He took part in translating some necessary books with historical, philosophical, and religious matters from Latin into Anglo-Saxon.Alfred was a patron to "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", and it is said that some parts of this chronicle are written by himself.He died in 890, but his successors could subdue other Saxon kings and unified England.

Ethelred, the Unready, (reign:979-1013 and 1014-1016) was one of the worst kings of England.During his reign, Danes started invading England,again.Ethelred used diplomatic ways to defended the country.He allied with the duke of Normandy in 991, and tried to buy off renewed attacks with a tax called the "Danegeld".In 1013, he fled to Normandy but came back in 1014, and died in 1016.

Ethelred's son, Edmund Ironside,fought bravely against Danes, but he was defeated by Cnut(Canute) .He was the last Saxon king before Danes.His reign was from April 1016 to November 1016 and died in 1016.

 

Caedmon's hymn

Cædmon was an illiterate cow-herd who miraculously was able to recite a Christian song of creation in Old English verse. This miracle happened after Cædmon left a feast when they were passing a harp around for all to sing a song. He left the hall after feeling ashamed that he could not contribute a song. Later in a dream he said a man appeared to him and asked him to sing a song. Cædmon responded that he could not sing, yet the man told him that he could and asked him to “Sing to me the beginning of all things.” Cædmon was then able to sing verses and words that he had not heard of before.

And now Caedmon's Hymn in Old English and modernised form:

Beowulf

For reading the Old English version of Beowulf, you can copy the link below and paste it on your browser:

http://northvegr.org/sagas%20annd%20epics/epic%20poetry/beowulf/001.html

And for reading the summary and analysis,this one:

http://www.sparknotes.com/free-pdfs/uscellular/download/beowulf.pdf

anglo-saxon literature

Anglo-Saxon literature is almost wholly verse which was passed orally from generation to generation.Anglo-Saxon literature, also known as Old English, can be divided into two parts: pre-Christian period and post-Christian period.

The dominant genre of Pre-Christian period is epic poetry, and the most famous work of this period is "Beowulf" about which I will explain in next posts. The other famous poems of this period are "Deor", "The Wanderer", "The Seafarer", and other poems. In these works, a happy past is contrasted with a precarious and desolate present. The "Finnsburgh" fragment, "The Battle of Maldon", and "The Battle of Brunanburh", are among war poems which are all based on historical episodes, mainly celebrate great heroism.

Post-Christian period as it is obvious from the name is the period in which Anglo-Saxons converted to Christianity.

history3: Anglo-Saxons

During the 5th century, three Germanic tribes invaded England: Jutes, Angles, and Saxons.They were barbarians who lived in today's Denmark and Germany.After being threatened by Germanic tribes, Romans left the island and left England defenceless.Four centuries living in peace had made English people unwarlike, and Anglo Saxons crossing North Sea,entered England.Celtic inhabitants of England were pushed west and north, into Wales,Scotland, and Ireland.

Holy Bible2

King James Bible:

And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night. And the evening and the morning were the first day.

 And God said, Let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters, and let it divide the waters from the waters.

 And God made the firmament, and divided the waters which were under the firmament from the waters which were above the firmament: and it was so.

 And God called the firmament Heaven. And the evening and the morning were the second day.

 And God said, Let the waters under the heaven be gathered together unto one place, and let the dry land appear: and it was so.

 And God called the dry land Earth; and the gathering together of the waters called he Seas: and God saw that it was good.

history 2: Roman invasion

After Celts, Romans were the next occupants of England. Roman Army had been fighting to Galli in France; Britons decided to help their cousins in Gaul which made the Roman leader to punish them by invading England.

Holy Bible 1

To get familiar with the literature of a nation you need to get familiar with their culture and history, too.So let's read a part of Holy Bible every day.This part I have chosen is from King James Bible which is an English translation of Holy Bible for the Anglican Church.

In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth.

 And the earth was without form, and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters.

 And God said, Let there be light: and there was light.

 And God saw the light, that it was good: and God divided the light from the darkness.

 And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night. And the evening and the morning were the first day

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